![]() Cell infiltrates comprised mostly monocytes in muscles, and NK cells, T cells, dendritic cells, monocytes, and B cells in dLNs. Experiments with a green fluorescent protein-expressing ChAd155 vector revealed infiltrating hematopoietic cell subsets at the injection site. They were characterized by a CCL2- and CXCL9/10-dominated chemokine profile, peaking at 6 h (with CXCL10/CCL2 signals also detectable in serum) and D7, and clear immune-cell infiltration peaks at D1/D2 and D6/D7. ![]() This dynamic pattern was mirrored by the innate responses in tissues, which developed as early as 1–3 h (cytokines/chemokines) or D1 (immune cells) post-vaccination. In mice, vector DNA levels gradually decreased post-immunization, but local transgene mRNA expression exhibited two transient peaks, which were most obvious in dLNs. Using different candidate vaccines based on the Group C ChAd type 155 (ChAd155) vector, we characterized early immune responses in injected muscles and draining lymph nodes (dLNs) from mice, and complemented these analyses by evaluating cytokine responses and gene expression patterns in peripheral blood from ChAd155-injected macaques. Since inducing effective immunity depends on the interplay between innate and adaptive immunity, a deeper understanding of innate immune responses elicited by intramuscularly injected ChAd vectors in tissues can advance the platform’s development. Replication-deficient chimpanzee adenovirus (ChAd) vectors represent an attractive vaccine platform and are thus employed as vaccine candidates against several infectious diseases.
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